How long is one lap of an athletics track

МЕТОДИЧЕСКАЯ РАЗРАБОТКА Topic “Sport and Healthy Lifestyle”

Topic “Sport and Healthy Lifestyle”

Работа над языковым материалом проводится поэтапно:

— работа с предтекстовыми упражнениями;

— чтение и перевод основного текста, контроль понимания прочитанного с помощью вопросов;

— выполнение послетекстовых лексико-грамматических и языковых упражнений, предполагающее парную и групповую работу;

— работа над дополнительным текстом.

Особенность большинства заданий заключается в том, что они носят коммуникативный, творческий характер, способствуют активизации мыслительной деятельности, развитию воображения и общего кругозора обучающихся, и, в конечном итоге, более глубокому усвоению учебного материала.

Topic “Sport and Healthy Lifestyle”

I. Practicing Vocabulary

1. Use a dictionary to help you complete the chart below. All of the words must begin with the letter of the alphabet given. Some letters may have many different answers, while others may not have an answer.

A athlete N ________________________

B ________________________ O ________________________

C ________________________ P ________________________

D ________________________ Q ________________________

E ________________________ R ________________________

F ________________________ S ________________________

G ________________________ T ________________________

H ________________________ U ________________________

I ________________________ V ________________________

J ________________________ W ________________________

K ________________________ X ________________________

L ________________________ Y ________________________

M ________________________ Z ________________________

2. Match the places and sports:

1 tennis/basketball a) circuit

2 football/rugby/hockey b) court

3 swimming/diving c) course

4 athletics d) pitch

5 Formula 1/motorcycling e) pool

3. Complete the sentences with the verbs from the table.

do score get injured go get fit train warm up play

1. Players usually ___________ before a match starts.

2. Professional sportspeople have to ___________ every day.

3. It’s dangerous to play tennis on a wet court. You might ___________.

4. I’ve started going to the gym, because I want to ___________.

5. He is a good player. I think he is going to ___________ a lot of goals.

6. Would you like to ___________ swimming this afternoon?

7. I ___________ basketball twice a week.

8. My brothers ___________ yoga and tai-chi.

Ÿ Do the Sports Quiz.

1. How long does a football match last?

2. How many referees are there in a basketball match?

3. How many players are there in a volleyball team?

4. How often are the World Athletics Championships held?

5. How long is a marathon?

6. How many holes are there on a golf course?

7. How long is one lap of an athletics track?

8. What is the width of balance beam?

III. Sport Questionnaire

Ÿ In pairs, interview your partner about sport using the questionnaire:

1. Do you like sport? What sport(s) do you play?

2. Have you ever won a cup or a trophy?

3. Have you ever been injured doing sport?

4. Do you prefer doing sport or being a spectator?

5. Do you prefer watching individual or team sports?

6. Do you go to watch a local sports team?

7. Are there good sports facilities in your town?

8. Is there any sport you`d like to learn to play well?

9. How many hours do you spend a week watching sport on TV?

10. What sports did you have to do at school?

11. Did you enjoy it?

12. Do you do any sport in your free time?

13. Do you think you are fit? Would you like to get fitter?

14. Do your family and friends like sport?

15. Is there any sport you don`t mind watching on TV?

16. What sport do you hate watching most on TV?

17. Have you ever been to a big sporting occasion?

18. Do you think physical education should be optional at school?

Reading and discussion

The Story of Sport

I. Answer the questions.

1. What do you know about the history of some sports and games?

2. Have got an idea when and where some sports and games were invented?

3. It is well known fact that football was invented in England (in 1863). And what about other sports and games? Give your suppositions.

Example: I guess basketball was invented in …

basketball hockey cricket rugby golf boxing tennis

lapta skate-boarding triathlon wind-surfing judo

Ÿ Use the expressions of doubt in your answers:

I ’ m not sure ( of it ). – Я не уверен (в этом).

I ’ m not certain ( of it ). – Я не уверен (в этом).

II. Divide these sports into four groups. Can you add any other sports to each group?

B winter sports

1 archery 9 ice hockey

2 baseball 10 ice-skating

3 basketball 11 sailing

4 boxing 12 skiing

5 canoeing 13 surfing

6 cycling 14 swimming

7 fencing 15 tobogganing

8 football 16 volleyball

III. Read and complete the text. Use

activity wrestling political hunting invention

origin s century evidence desire competitions

The origins of sport are ancient. The first type of sporting (1) ______ was probably archery. This existed in Mesolithic times (8000 BC) and was used mainly for (2) _____, not sport. We know from classical literature that there were archery (3) _____ in Ancient Greece in the twelfth (4) ______ BC.

But it was much earlier, sometime in the period 2750-2600 BC that the first “real” sporting events between different individuals and teams took place.

(5) ______ was the earliest organized sport to be recorded and these competitive events took place in Mesopotamia which is now part of modern Iraq. However, (6) ______ from Egyptian murals shows that girls were playing ball games as long ago as 2050 BC, but for fun, not in competitions.

We also know that in ancients cultures, sports and games often included religious and (7) ______ elements. This was true amongst the Ancient Greeks and amongst the Aztec Indians, who lived in what we now call Mexico. But in addition to religion and politics, there was always a (8) _____ for play and fun which constantly led to the (9) _____ of new games and sports.

What Does a Healthy Way of Life Mean?

Ÿ Read and translate the text.

Everybody is ultimately responsible for his own health. Our body has an incredible in born ability to heal itself – if given the conditions it needs to do so.

Are you one of those who never go without pills, never exercise in the gym, never go camping? Or do you belong to those who go barefooted, play games, go in for sports, go climbing and boating, prefer natural relief to pills? There are many ways to be healthy and restore health, and the more you know about them, the more informed choices you can make.

Today everybody wants to be fit, feel good, look slim and stay young. There are many opportunities for keeping fit. First of all it is necessary to do exercises. Running, jumping, swimming, bending and stretching are among the most popular exercises. Many fitness clubs and public leisure centres have been built during the past years. Many people prefer jogging, which is the cheapest sport. Walking is a very popular activity too. In order to keep fit some people do aerobics or yoga; others prefer some kind of weight training in a gym. A healthy body becomes a fashion. Families can spend their free time jogging, walking or swimming together. Some families like to get out of their city into the countryside. They can have much fun in the forests, or on the bank of a lake or a river. But this may not help them to get fitter. They simply enjoy being together. Everyone can benefit from being a little more active. Making small changes like using the stairs instead of the lift or walking or cycling instead of taking the bus can help people live a more active, healthier and enjoyable life.

Unfortunately, many people do not take enough exercise to keep them healthy. According to the statistics nowadays 60 percent of men and 91 percent of women are below activity levels necessary for a fit and healthy life. Many men and women are overweight. Besides, because of the contaminated environment people suffer a lot of diseases. Doing exercises is the best way to avoid depression caused by the abnormal rhythm of the contemporary city life. Besides to avoid serious disease one should give up smoking. Efforts should be made to inform young people of the terrible consequences of taking up the habit. Smoking should be banned in all public places.

I. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and expressions:

to be responsible for one’s health; inborn ability; to go without pills; to go barefooted; to prefer natural relief to pills; restore health; weight training; to benefit from something; to be below activity levels; to be overweight; contaminated environment; to suffer a lot of diseases; to avoid depression; to be caused by the abnormal rhythm of the city life; terrible consequences; to be banned.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. What is necessary to do first of all to be fit?

2. What are the most popular exercises?

3. Which is the cheapest sport?

4. What becomes a fashion?

5. How do many families spend their free time?

6. What can help people live a more active life?

7. What is the best way to avoid depression caused by the abnormal rhythm of the city life?

8. Why should smoking be banned in all places?

Reading and discussion

I. Read and translate the text.

Ÿ Don’t you think these tips may be useful for you? Which one is the most suitable for you?

5 Tips for Healthy Living on the Go

Are you a busy entrepreneur or employee who is usually on the go and doesn’t have a lot of time, but still wants get more healthy?

Don’t worry, you’re not alone. Most people want to get healthy, more fitter and look younger yet they can’t seem to find the time for it.

Here are five tips for healthy living on the go:

1. Enjoy a pint of water first thing in the morning.

If you haven’t got time for anything else in the morning, make time to drink a big glass of water. We lose a lot of oxygen through the night and to rejuvenate our cells, we need to supply them with water and oxygen. Drink a glass of water and within a week you’ll begin to feel less tired.

2. Grab a few fresh fruits on your way out.

Wherever you’re going – whether it’s a walk or drive to the supermarket or on your way to a meeting – pick up one or two fruits and eat them. Fruits are great for their nutrients, vitamins and sugars that are required in our body.

3. Exercise on the go.

If you work in an office, get up every 30 minutes and go for a walk. If you have an office with stairs, run up and down the stairs every couple of hours. Get your blood flowing and your muscles moving.

4. Eat a handful of nuts.

Get your favorite selection of nuts (almonds, cashews, pecans, walnuts, etc.) and raisins and have a big handful of them at around 3pm. This has been shown to increase afternoon energy and productivity.

5. Deep breathing.

When you’ve got time – at your desk, driving the car, cooking food – do some deep breathing. Inhale and count up to 5 seconds, hold it for a few seconds, and release slowly. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is one of the best things we can do for our blood and cells.

II. What is the meaning of these words? (work in the classroom and at home)

Track and Field Basics: What You Need to Know to Watch the Sport

Here’s everything you need to know about the events that make up track meets.

Are you excited to watch the first track and field world championships held in the United States? So are we! This article will get you up to speed on watching track and field like a true fan. Below you’ll find some track and field basics, an overview of all the world championship events as well as each event’s unique characteristics, and world and world championship records for each race and field event.

No matter what you need to improve in your running life, find it with RW+!

Track basics

One lap on the inside lane of a conventional track is 400 meters, which is just less than 8 feet short of a quarter mile. As race distances became standardized internationally, 440-yard (quarter-mile) tracks, which were the standard in the United States until recent decades, were phased out. Four laps of an outdoor track equals 1600 meters—this is 9.3 meters, or just more than 30 feet, short of a mile.

Track and field’s governing body, World Athletics, has established standards for the shape of tracks. The two straightaways are 84.39 meters long, and the two semi-circle turns have a radius of 36.5 meters. The straightaway where races finish is called the homestretch. The straightaway on the other side of the track is called the backstretch. The first curve is called the near turn, and the second curve is called the far turn.

Nearly all modern tracks have a synthetic surface. Two of the most common types are sold under the names Mondo (made of synthetic rubber) and Tartan (made of polyurethane).

Below are the events that are contested at the Olympics (held every four years), the World Championships (usually held every two years, in odd-number years) and the NCAA Outdoor Championships, which annually crown the top collegiate athletes in the U.S.

100 meters

The winners of the shortest race in the Olympics are considered the fastest man and woman in the world. The race is run in a straight line along the homestretch.

Although false starts—one or more runners starting before the gun is fired—can happen in any race, they are most common in the 100. Sensors in the starting blocks used by sprinters tell referees if a runner’s hands have left the ground or feet have left the blocks. Runners are disqualified after one false start.

World records
Women: 10.49 (Florence Griffith-Joyner, United States, 1988)
Men: 9.58 (Usain Bolt, Jamaica, 2009)

World Championship records
Women: 10.70 (Marion Jones, United States, 1999)
Men: 9.58 (Usain Bolt, Jamaica, 2009)

200 meters

This race consists of half a lap of the track, starting on the end of the backstretch. Runners must stay in their assigned lane. As a result, the race uses a staggered start—runners in the outside lanes start farther up the track—to account for the varying distances around the track from each lane.

World records
Women: 21.34 (Florence Griffith-Joyner, United States, 1988)
Men: 19.19 (Usain Bolt, Jamaica, 2009)

World Championship records
Women: 21.63 (Dafne Schippers, Netherlands, 2015)
Men: 19.19 (Usain Bolt, Jamaica, 2009)

400 meters

Considered the longest sprint, the 400 consists of one lap of the track. As in the shorter sprints, runners stay in their assigned lane the whole race. As in the 200, the start is staggered so that each runner covers the proper distance.

Because of the staggered start, it can be difficult to tell who is ahead. By the time the runners enter the homestretch, with about 100 meters to go, they’ve run close to the same distance, making it possible to determine the leaders.

World records
Women: 47.60 (Marita Koch, East Germany, 1985)
Men: 43.03 (Wade van Niekerk, South Africa, 2016)

World Championship records
Women: 47.99 (Jarmila Kratochviloa, Czechoslovakia, 1983)
Men: 43.18 (Michael Johnson, United States, 1999)

800 meters

This two-lap race has a staggered start, but after 100 meters the contestants break for the inside lanes and run the race as a pack.

The 800 requires equal parts raw speed and endurance. It’s the only middle- or long-distance race in which elites typically run the first half of the race faster than the second. The balance of energy demands in the 800 is such that starting a little slower than goal pace doesn’t result in a reserve of speed for the finish, as is the case in longer races.

World records
Women: 1:53.28 (Jarmila Kratochviloa, Czechoslovakia, 1983)
Men: 1:40.91 (David Rudisha, Kenya, 2012)

World Championship records
Women: 1:54.68 (Jarmila Kratochvilova, Czechoslovakia, 1983)
Men: 1:42.34 (Donavan Brazier, United States, 2019)

1500 meters

The “metric mile” consists of 3.75 laps of the track, with the runners starting at the beginning of the backstretch.

The 1500 is just more than 109 meters short of a mile. For a world-class men’s time, add roughly 16 seconds to get an equivalent mile time. For world-class women, add about 19 seconds.

World records
Women: 3:50.07 (Genzebe Dibaba, Ethiopia, 2015)
Men: 3:26.00 (Hicham El Guerrouj, Morocco, 1998)

World Championship records
Women: 3:51.95 (Sifan Hassan, The Netherlands, 2019)
Men: 3:27.65 (Hicham El Guerrouj, Morocco, 1999)

5,000 meters

This 12.5-lap race starts on the backstretch. The winning times in championship races are sometimes much slower than the world records. Because the top contenders care only about placing, the early pace can be slow—pushing the pace early leads more often to that runner faltering in the last laps than prevailing. In a tactical race, the men might run the final laps at sub-4:00 mile pace. In recent years, however, more top contenders have risked pushing the pace almost from the start.

World Championship records
Women: 14:26.72 (Hellen Obiri, Kenya, 2019)
Men: 12:52.79 (Eliud Kipchoge, Kenya, 2003)

10,000 meters

Yes, you did the math correctly—what on the roads is a 10K entails running 25 laps of the track. As in the 5,000, the second half of the race is usually much faster than the first half. Top contenders who lack a strong finishing sprint will often push the pace over the final two or three kilometers in an attempt to break the better kickers. The winner’s last lap is often run about as fast as the final lap of the 1500.

If there are more than 20 runners in the race, a barrel start is used. The first 20 runners line up at the traditional waterfall start, while the remaining ones line up behind a shorter waterfall start in an outer lane. The runners in the outer start group can cut to the inside lane after the first turn. In the Olympics, a barrel start is used only for the 10,000-meter finals.

World records
Women: 29:01.03 (Letensebet Gidey, Ethiopia, 2021)
Men: 26:11.00 (Joshua Cheptegei, Uganda, 2020)

World Championship records
Women: 30:04.18 (Berhane Adere, Ethiopia, 2003)
Men: 26:46.31 (Kenenisa Bekele, Ethiopia, 2009)

100-meter (women) / 110-meter (men) high hurdles

This is the only Olympic race in which men and women run different distances. Each race features 10 hurdles. The greater distance for men accounts for a longer stride between hurdles.

Each race is run in lanes along the homestretch of the track. The women’s hurdles are 33 inches high, the men’s 42 inches high. There’s no penalty for clipping or even knocking over a hurdle, although doing so doesn’t help get to the finish line faster.

World records
Women: 12.20 (Kendra Harrison, United States, 2016)
Men: 12.80 (Aries Merritt, United States, 2012)

World Championship records
Women: 12.28 (Sally Pearson, Australia, 2011)
Men: 12.91 (Colin Jackson, Great Britain, 1993)

400-meter intermediate hurdles

As if a one-lap sprint weren’t challenging enough, this event adds 10 hurdles to clear. For men, the hurdles are 36 inches high, for women, 30 inches.

As with the open 400, this race is run entirely in lanes from a staggered start. But in contrast to the open 400, it’s easy to tell who’s leading early on—watch to see who is clearing their hurdles first. Runners tend to use a set number of steps between hurdles; doing so helps them establish a rhythm that enables clearing the hurdles without breaking stride. If, as often occurs in 400-meter races, the runners start to tie up in the final 50 meters from oxygen debt, their stride pattern can be thrown off, and clearing the last hurdles can become far more difficult.

World records
Women: 51.41 (Sydney McLaughlin, United States, 2022)
Men: 45.94 (Kartsten Warholm, Norway, 2021)

World Championship records
Women: 52.16 (Dalilah Muhammad, United States, 2019)
Men: 47.18 (Kevin Young, United States, 1993)

3,000-meter steeplechase

This race has its origins in horse races between Irish towns, with church steeples used as visual aids and barriers such as fences and streams to leap over. In the 1860s a human running equivalent was introduced as a cross-country race.

In a modern steeplechase, runners clear a total of 28 hurdles and seven water jumps. Most water jumps are on the inside of the track; in that situation, the race starts on the backstretch of the track. Some water jumps are on the outside of the track, in which case the race starts on the homestretch. The race is seven full laps of the track plus whatever remaining distance, as dictated by the placement of the water jump, to total 3,000 meters. After the start, there are no jumps until the runners cross the finish line the first time. From there, the runners tackle the water barrier and jumps in the final seven laps.

Hurdle heights for the women’s and men’s races are 30 and 36 inches, respectively. The barriers measure just under 13 feet across, meaning that they extend into the third lane. Unlike in sprint hurdle races, if a runner hits a hurdle, the runner rather than the hurdle falls to the track.

The water pit is 12 feet wide and 12 feet long, and slopes upward to rise to the track surface. Most runners clear the water jump by landing on top of its hurdle with one foot and landing with the other foot near the shallow end of the water pit. Doing so requires less energy than pushing off hard enough from the barrier to clear the water pit.

More so than in other distance races, the top contenders aren’t afraid to run from the front almost from the start. Doing so gives them a clean shot at the barriers. Alternatively, some favorites avoid getting tangled with others at the hurdles by staying at the back of the pack until the last one or two laps.

World records
Women: 8:58.81 (Gulnara Galkina-Samitova, Russia, 2008)
Men: 7:44.32 (Beatrice Chepkoech, Kenya, 2018)

World Championship records
Women: 8:57.84 (Beatrice Chepkoech, Kenya, 2019)
Men: 8:00.43 (Ezekiel Kemboi, Kenya, 2009)

4 x 100 meters (relay)

Teams of four contest this one-lap race. Teams stay in their assigned lane throughout.

The leadoff runner starts in blocks, holding a baton. The baton must be passed from one runner to the next within a 20-meter zone that extends from 10 meters before each 100-meter mark to 10 meters after. The second, third, and fourth runners use a running start, which may begin 10 meters before the start of the exchange zone.

Because the runners are going so quickly, it can be difficult to cleanly execute the baton handoff in the exchange zone. Teams are disqualified if they hand off the baton outside the exchange zone. A dropped baton isn’t automatic grounds for disqualification, but nonetheless knocks a team out of contention.

Although the event uses a staggered start, you can tell which teams are leading by seeing whose baton passes are occurring first.

World records
Women: 40.82 (United States, 2012)
Men: 36.84 (Jamaica, 2012)

World Championship records
Women: 41.07 (Jamaica, 2015)
Men: 37.04 (Jamaica, 2011)

4 x 400 meters (relay)

For this four-lap race, the leadoff runners start in staggered lanes, and run their leg entirely in their lane. The first handoff occurs in the team’s assigned lane, but runners on the second leg can break for the inside lane after 100 meters of their leg. The second and third handoffs occur at the finish line, with teams lined up on the basis of current position.

World records
Women: 3:15.17 (Soviet Union, 1988)
Men: 2:54.29 (United States, 1993)

World Championship records
Women: 3:16.71 (United States, 1993)
Men: 2:54.29 (United States, 1993)

Field events: Jumping

High jump

Athletes run up to a 4-meter-long bar and jump off one foot to try to clear it. An attempt counts if the bar remains in place, even if the jumper hits it. Athletes are allowed three attempts at each height; three consecutive unsuccessful jumps remove an athlete from the competition. Athletes can pass a jump at any time. The bar is raised a set amount, usually 3 centimeters, until all but one competitor are eliminated. If the leading jumpers fail out at the same height, the winner is the one who had the fewest misses at the previous height. If they’re still tied after that, the winner is the one who had the fewest total misses in the competition.

World records
Women: 2.09 meters (6’10”) (Stefka Kastadinova, Bulgaria, 1987)
Men: 2.45 meters (8’0”) (Javier Sotomayor, Cuba, 1993)

World Championship records
Women: 2.09 meters (6’10”) (Stefka Kastadinova, Bulgaria, 1987)
Men: 2.41 meters (7’10”) (Bohdan Bondarenko, Ukraine, 2013)

Long jump

Athletes sprint down a runway on the infield of the track to a wooden takeoff board, from which they jump into a sand pit. The jump is measured from the end of the board to the closest indentation made in the sand. An attempt is a foul if the athlete’s foot extends past the end of the takeoff board.

In major meets, the starting field is usually allowed three jumps, and the eight or nine athletes with the best marks at that time are allowed three more jumps. As in other field events, athletes can pass an attempt but remain in the competition. In the long jump, this strategy is most often used by those who have posted an early mark that others are unlikely to surpass.

World records
Women: 7.52 meters (24’8”) (Galina Chistyakova, Soviet Union, 1988)
Men: 8.90 meters (29’2”) (Bob Beamon, United States, 1968)

World Championship records
Women: 7.36 meters (24’1”) (Jackie Joyner-Kersee, United States, 1987)
Men: 8.95 meters (29’4”) (Mike Powell, United States, 1991)

Triple jump

The “hop, step, and jump” begins with a sprint down a runway on the infield of the track. At a wooden takeoff board, athletes push off with one foot (the hop) and land on that foot (the step). They then land on the opposite foot and jump into a sand pit. The jump is measured from the end of the takeoff board to the closest indentation made in the sand. As in the long jump, an attempt is a foul if the athlete’s foot extends past the end of the takeoff board.

World records
Women: 15.74 meters (51’8”) (Yulimar Rojas, Venezuala, 2022)
Men: 18.29 meters (60’0”) (Jonathan Edwards, Great Britain, 1995)

World Championship records
Women: 15.50 meters (50’10”) (Inessa Kravets, Ukraine, 1995)
Men: 18.29 meters (60’0”) (Jonathan Edwards, Great Britain, 1995)

Pole vault

The other of the vertical jumps is conducted similarly to the high jump, with the winner the one who clears the highest height. If the pole breaks or the wind knocks the bar off during an attempt, the athlete is given another try.

World records
Women: 5.06 meters (16’7”) (Yelena Isinbayeva, Russa, 2009)
Men: 6.03 meters (20’4”) (Armand Duplantis, Sweden, 2022)

World Championship records
Women: 5.01 meters (16’5”) (Yelena Isinbayeva, Russia, 2005)
Men: 6.05 meters (19’10”) (Dmitri Markov, Australia, 2001)

​Field events: Throwing

Shot Put

Shot putters throw (“put”) the ball with one hand, with the ball positioned tight against the neck. For an attempt to count, the ball must land within a specified sector, and the athlete can’t leave the shot put circle until the ball has landed.

Shot putters use either a spinning technique or gliding technique to move across the shot put circle and build momentum before throwing. The men’s shot weighs 16.01 pounds; the women’s weighs 8.8 pounds.

World records
Women: 22.63 meters (74’3”) (Natalya Lisovskaya, Soviet Union, 1987)
Men: 23.37 meters (76’8”) (Ryan Crouser, United States, 2021)

World Championship records
Women: 21.24 meters (69’8”) (Natalia Lisovskaya Soviet Union, 1987, and Valerie Adams, New Zealand, 2011)
Men: 22.91 meters (75’2”) (Joe Kovacs, United States, 2019)

Discus

As in the shot put, athletes have to stay within the throwing circle until the discus lands, and the discus must land within the specified sector.

The men’s discus weighs 2 kilograms (4.4 pounds) and has an 8.5-inch diameter. The women’s discus weighs 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) and has a 7-inch diameter.

World records
Women: 76.80 meters (251’11”) (Gabriele Reinsch, East Germany, 1988)
Men: 74.08 meters (243’0”) (Jurgen Scholt, East Germany, 1986)

World Championship records
Women: 71.62 meters (234’11”) (Martina Hellmann, Germany, 1987)
Men: 70.17 meters (230’2”) (Virgilijus Alenka, Lithuania, 2005)

Hammer

The hammer throw is one of the most technically demanding events. The implement is a round weight attached by a cord to a handle. The men’s hammer weighs 16 pounds and is just under 4 feet in length. The women’s hammer weighs 8.8 pounds and is 47 inches long, or 3 centimeters shorter than the men’s.

Athletes begin the hammer throw with two stationary spins in the throwing circle, then continue with three to five more spins as they move across the throwing circle to release the implement.

World records
Women: 82.98 meters (272’3”) (Anita Wtodardoczyk, Poland, 2016)
Men: 86.74 meters (284’7”) (Yuriy Sedykh, Soviet Union, 1986)

World Championship records
Women: 80.85 meters (265’3”) (Anita Wtodardoczyk, Poland, 2015)
Men: 83.63 meters (273’6”) (Ivan Tikhon, Belarus, 2007)

Javelin

This modern version of tossing a spear has highly detailed rules, partly so because advances in device construction and athlete technique have made it necessary to keep the javelin within the track.

The javelin must be held at its grip, at the other end of the point, and thrown overhand, over the shoulder or upper arm. Athletes aren’t allowed to turn twist such that their back faces the direction of the throw (doing so would allow sideways throws that could travel farther). A throw is measured only if the tip hits the ground first. The men’s javelin is between 2.6 and 2.7 meters long and weighs less than 2 pounds. The women’s is between 2.2 and 2.3 meters long and weighs 1.3 pounds.

World records
Women: 72.28 meters (237’1”) (Barbora Spotakova, Czech Republic, 2008)
Men: 98.48 meters (323’0”) (Yan Zelezny, Czech Republic, 1996)

World Championship records
Women: 71.70 meters (235’2”) (Olisdeilys Menendez, Cuba, 2005)
Men: 92.80 meters (304’5”) (Jan Zelezny, Czech Republic, 2001)

Activity: The Olympic Athletics Track

Have you ever watched some of the races in the Olympic Games and wondered why the athletes don’t all start from the same part of the track?

It is called a «staggered start».

Why a Staggered Start?

If they all started from the same line, then the athletes in the outer lanes would have to run further than the athletes in the inner lanes, because of the semicircles at the top and bottom of the track.

So each lane has to have a special starting position so they all have to run the same distance.

Let’s learn how to calculate the correct positions for the 400 m running race

How Far?

How far does each athlete run when he/she completes one lap of the track?

Let’s look first at the route followed by the runner in Lane 1 (the inside lane).

The rules state that you measure 0.3 m from the inner edge of the lane (about where the runner runs) for Lane 1 if there is a curb. And 0.2 m for all other lanes:

From the IAAF Rulebook, Rule 160.2

So this is what it looks like for Lane 1:

On the curved sections Lane 1 has a radius of 36.5, but we need to add 0.3 m for the «running position», for a total of 36.8 m

And together the two curved parts make a circle of radius 36.8m.

See the page Circle to learn more about radius and circumference.

So, how far would you have to run? Answer: the Circumference of the circle (plus the straight parts)

The radius is 36.8 m

So the Circumference = 2 × π × radius = 2 × π × 36.8 m = 231.22 m

Add the two straight section of 84.39 m:

231.22 + 2 × 84.39 m = 231.22 + 168.78 = 400 m

Wow! The inside lane is exactly 400 m.

Well, that is how it is designed.

But What About Lane 2?

Each lane is 1220 wide, so the radius for Lane 2 is 36.5 + 1.22 = 37.72 m

And we need to add 0.2 m for the Lane 2 «running position» (remember: 0.3 m for Lane 1, 0.2 m for other lanes), for a total of 37.92 m

The radius is 37.92 m

So the Circumference = 2 × π × 37.92 m = 238.26 m (to nearest 0.01m)

Add the two straight section of 84.39 m:

238.26 m + 2 × 84.39 m = 238.26 m + 168.78 m = 407.04 m

. so Lane 2 should start 7.04 m after Lane 1 to be fair

Your Turn

Can you complete the following table?

Lane	Radius	Circumference	Total distance	Staggered Start
1	36.8 m	231.22 m	400 m	0 m
2	37.92 m	238.26 m	407.04 m	7.04 m
3
4
5
6
7
8

You should have found that the runner in Lane 8 starts about 53 meters in front of the runner in Lane 1!

It’s fair because, with the staggered start, each athlete runs exactly 400 meters.

But some people say that the athletes in the inner lanes have an advantage because they can see the other athletes, and know what work they need to do to catch up.

On the other hand, others argue that the athletes in the outer lanes don’t have such tight curves to run. So, unless all races could be run on a straight stretch (like the 100 meters), it will never be totally fair.

Bonus Activity: Area

You might want to investigate the area of each lane (imagine you want to paint them different colors).

The area is made up of the circular area and the straights.

We don’t want the athletes running position, we want the radius of the edge.

The radius of the inside of Lane 1 is 36.5 m, so the radius of the outside of Lane 1 (which is the same as the radius of the inside of Lane 2) must be 36.5 m + 1.22 m = 37.72 m

Area = π × radius 2 (read more on the Circle page)

And the area of both straights = 2 × 1.22 m × 84.39 m = 205.9 m 2 (to one decimal).

Track and field

Track and field

The track and field stadium is at the heart of the sport
Nickname(s)	Track
Characteristics
Team members	Yes
Mixed gender	Yes
Olympic	Yes

Track and field (also known as track and field sports, track and field athletics, or commonly just track) is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for the competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area. The throwing and jumping events generally take place within the central enclosed area.

Track and field is one of the sports which (along with road running, cross-country running and race walking) makes up the umbrella sport of athletics. It is under the banner of athletics that the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are held: the athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for track and field.

Track and field events are generally individual sports with athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor. The racing events are won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who has achieved the greatest distance or height in the contest. The running events are categorised as sprints, middle and long-distance events, relays, and hurdling. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also «combined events», such as heptathlon and decathlon, in which athletes compete in a number of the above events.

Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event’s rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased. The athletes wear small clothes that make running easier; men wear shorts and sleeveless shirts while women wear swim-like suits.

[edit] History

The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace. The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognised today – it comprised a five-event competition of thelong jump, javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.

Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC. After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages. The stone putand weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modernshot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.

Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the late 19th century. These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations andsports clubs as competitions between rival establishments. [6] Competitive hurdling first came into being around this point, with the advent of the steeplechase in England around 1850. The Amateur Athletic Association was established in England in 1880 as the first national body for the sport of athletics and, under this grouping, track and field became the focus of the annual AAA Championships. The United States also began holding an annual national competition – the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships – first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club. [8] Following the establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889), track and field events began to be promoted and codified.

The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field. The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games’ most prominent. The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field would continue to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball professionally.

That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming theinternational governing body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men’s Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923. The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934. Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male-only pursuit. The women’s sports movement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics and more women’s events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the century that the men’s and women’s programmes approached parity of events). Furthermore, major track and field competitions fordisabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.

With the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic-style multi-sport events(such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread. From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations. After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s. As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field). The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations. The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics – the first ever global competition for just athletics which became one of track and field’s most prestigious competitions along with the Olympics.

The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names(such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd and Florence Griffith-Joyner). Many world recordswere broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport’s popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete’s diet regimes, training facilities and sports equipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and prominent cases, such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.

From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997, and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League — an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe — provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US$1 million jackpot. In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League which comprises meetings in Europe, Asia, North America and the Middle East – the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.

[edit] Events

Track and field events are divided in to three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and – in the case of the hurdlingand steeplechase events – obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a batonto their team member at the end of a certain distance.

There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose-built sticks in the pole vault.

The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown. Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events – points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner.

[edit] Running

[edit] Sprints

Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event – the stadion race, which was literally a race from one end of the stadium to the other. Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed. There are three sprinting events which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres,200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete’s maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner’s near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up and leg muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen.

The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it is an indoor world championship event. Other less-common events include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983, Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea’s record in 2009.

[edit] Middle distance

The most common middle distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance event. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.

Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing thestarter’s pistol they head towards the inner-most track to follow the quickest route to the finish. In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race. [24] This rule was introduced in order to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race. [22] Physiologically, these middle distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance. [25]

The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other’s 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s. The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long-elusive four-minute mile, [28] [29] and Jim Ryun’s exploits served to popularise interval training. [23] Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle distance running in 1980s. From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events.

Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete’s reactions and top speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.

[edit] Long distance

There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres,5000 metres and 10,000 metres. The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships. The 5000 m and 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3-mile and 6-mile races. The 3000 m was historically used as a women’s long distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned in favour of a women’s 5000 m event in 1995.

In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track races have much in common with middle distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances. [32] [33] However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle and long distance events, including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m. [34] The use of pace-setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win. [33] [35]

The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the «Flying Finns», such as multiple Olympic championPaavo Nurmi. The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke’s world record-breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even-paced running. The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events. Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.

[edit] Relays

Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races betweenfiremen, who would hand a red pennant on to team mates every 300 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 4×100 metres relay and the 4×400 metres relay. Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one-off men’s medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics. The 4×100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track. Teams in a 4×400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner-most part of the circuit. For the second and third baton change overs, team mates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes.

The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays. As with 4×100 m and 4×400 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 4×200 m, 4×800 m and 4×1500 m relays. Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m, 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m) which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay – known as the Swedish medley relay – which is popular in Scandinavia and is also featured on the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme. [40] Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events. [41]

[edit] Hurdling

Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England. The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100-yard dash which included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this; holding a 120-yard race (109.72 m) which had ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9.14 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish, respectively. French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the men’s 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged. The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.44 cm) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively. Women’s hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6in) for the 400 m event.

By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes. The men’s 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men’s 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games. Women’s initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932. This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics, but it was not until 1984 that a women’s 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year).

Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event which includes obstacles. Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England. However, this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechasecompetition found in horse racing. A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men’s 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races. The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event. The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m circuit which includes a water jump on each lap. [46] Despite the long history of men’s steeplechase in track and field, the women’s steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008.

[edit] Jumping

[edit] Long jump

The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped furthest. [47] Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end in order to gain extra momentum and distance. The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track which leads up to a jumping board and a sandpit. The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand which was disturbed by the athlete’s body.

The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men’s long jump competition and a women’s competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed. In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest exists in which athletes must leap from a static position without the aid of a run up. A men’s version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.

[edit] Triple jump

Similar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current «hop, step and jump» pattern from 1900 onwards. [53] There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this to be incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Crotonhaving jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m). The Book of Leinster, a 12th century Irish manuscript, records the existence of geal-ruith(triple jump) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games.

The men’s triple jump competition has been ever-present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women’s version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later. A men’s standing triple jump event featured at the 1900 and 1904 Olympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a non-competitive exercise drill. [56]

High jump

The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century. [57] Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there. Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area. The men’s high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women’s competition soon followed in 1928.

Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut-off or Western roll technique. The straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosburyoverturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s – theFosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards. The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.

[edit] Pole vault

In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s. One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843. The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States. The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar. Bamboopoles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard. Landing matresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.

The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing matress. While earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such asfibreglass or carbon fibre. The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women’s world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships. The first women’s Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000. [61]

[edit] Throwing

The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks: in the middle ages thestone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century,cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport. The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and legal throws had to be taken within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven foot diameter in 1906 and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876. [66]

The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women’s competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O’Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the «glide,» breaking the world record 16 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov andBrian Oldfield introduced the «spin» or rotational technique in 1976. [66] [68]

[edit] Discus throw

As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. [69] In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics. This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard. The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907. The women’s discus was among the first women’s events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928.

[edit] Combined events

Combined (or multi-discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in each events which goes towards a total points score. Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men’s decathlon and the women’s heptathlon. Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men’s heptathlon and the women’s pentathlon. Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system, such as thedecathlon scoring table.

The Ancient Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games). A men’s decathlon was held at the1904 Summer Olympics, albeit contested between five American and two British athletes.

Composition of combined events

Event	Track				Field
Men’s decathlon	100 m	400 m	1500 m	110 m hurdles	Long jump	High jump	Pole vault	Shot put	Discus throw	Javelin throw
Women’s heptathlon	200 m	800 m	100 m hurdles	Long jump	High jump	Shot put	Javelin throw
Men’s heptathlon	60 m	1000 m	60 m hurdles	Long jump	High jump	Pole vault	Shot put
Women’s pentathlon	800 m	60 m hurdles	Long jump	High jump	Shot put

[edit] Stadia

[edit] Outdoor

The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums which first hosted track and field competitions. The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval-shaped running track and an area of turf within this track – the field. In earlier competitions the lengths of the tracks varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.45 m) at Francis Field. As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes. Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s. 3M’s Tartan track (an all-weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport. Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field which is built for other sports such as the various types of football.

The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40-metre running track with asandpit at one or both ends. Jumps are measured from a take off board – typically a small strip ofwood with a plasticine marker attached – which is used to ensure athletes jump from behind the measurement line. The pole vault area is also a 40-metre running track and it has an indentation in the ground (the box) in which poles are planted. Athletes then propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto a cushioned area of landing mats. The high jump is a stripped down version of this, with an open area of track or field leading up to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.

The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage which is usually situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws will travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The throwing area is asector. Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.

[edit] Indoor

Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events. Full-size indoor arenas (i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200-metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track may be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. There is also a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events – competitions which are held almost exclusively indoors. Another common adaptation is a 160 yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court sized arena. This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden, and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.

All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track. Shot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions. The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.

[edit] Rules

[edit] Track rules

The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009. Key rules of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing.

[edit] Starting

The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish. Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 x 200 m and 4 x 400 m) and may not be used for any other race. No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane. [91] All races must be started by the report of the starter’s gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after he or she has ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position. An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with his or her hands or feet when on his or her marks. At most international competitions the commands of the starter in his or her own language, in English or in French, shall, in races up to and including 400 m, be «On your marks» and «Set». When all athletes are «set», the gun must be fired, or an approved starting apparatus must be activated. However, if the starter is not satisfied that all is ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over.

False start: An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgment of the starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start. It is deemed a false start if, in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands «on your marks» or «set» as appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command «on your marks» disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise. If the runner is in the «set» position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified. As of 2010, any athlete making a false start is disqualified. This rule was already in place in high school and college.

In International Elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes. If the athlete reacts in less than 0.1 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start.

In all races run in lanes, each athlete must keep within his allocated lane from start to finish. This also applies to any portion of a race run in lanes. If an athlete leaves the track or steps on the line demarking the track, he/she should be disqualified. Also, any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be disqualified from that event. However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.

There are races that start in lanes and then at a «break» line, the competitors merge. Examples of this are the 800 metres, 4×400 relay and the indoor 400 metres. Variations on this, with alleys made up of multiple lanes on the track, are used to start large fields of distance runners.

The finish

The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. The athletes must be placed in the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle-eyed officials on the finish line. Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a (sprint) record is set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).

With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties are rare. Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second. If the judge decides that there has been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round. In the case of a tie for first place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again. If he decides it is not, the result will stand. Ties in other placings remain.

[edit] Field rules

In general, most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition. Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the longest distance.

Vertical jumps (High Jump and Pole Vault) set a bar at a particular height. The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat). Three failures in a row will end the competitor’s participation in the event. The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses). A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings. After all competitors have either cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar will go up. The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts. A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor. After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event. Ties are broken by first, the number of attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole. The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position. If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors will take a fourth jump at the last height. If they still miss, the bar will go down one increment where they will again jump. This process will continue until the tie is broken.

Horizontal jumps (Long Jump and Triple Jump) and all throws must be initiated behind a line. In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway. In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle. Crossing the line while initiating the attempt will invalidate the attempt—it will become a foul. All landings must occur in a sector. For the jumps, that is a sand filled pit, for throws it is a defined sector. A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector). Assuming a proper attempt, officials will then measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line. The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line. To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws. The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation will see the length and record the measurement. Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) using a steel tape and observed by at least three officials (plus usually the meet referee). Steel tapes tend to be easily bent and damaged, so they are not used to measure everyday competitions. For major competitions, each competitor will get three attempts. The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition’s rules or the number of lanes on the track) will get three more attempts. At that level of competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set in order so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round will be last, while the last competitor to qualify will go first. Some meets will rearrange the competition order again for the final round so the final attempt will be taken by the leader at that point. At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts. Whatever the format, all competitors get an equal number of attempts.

[edit] Organizations

The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole. The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies. Some national federations are named after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies. These national federations regulate sub-national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.

[edit] Competitions

[edit] Olympics and World Championships

The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic athletics programme which occurs every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympicssince its inception in 1896, and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympics. Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic sporting event.

The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF. The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon andracewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athleticshas been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.

[edit] Other championships

Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships. The South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championshipsbecame the second championships of this type in 1934. The Asian Athletics Championships andAfrican Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started itschampionships in 1990.

There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics Championships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. Most countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions. In some countries there are many track and field championships athigh school and college-level which serve to develop the abilities of younger athletes; some of these have achieved significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships. However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country.

[edit] Multi-sport events

Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events. Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic-style model were the World University Games in 1923, theCommonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932. [105] The number of major multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.

After the Olympic Games, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC-sanctioned continental games: the All-Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan American Games. Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as a the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.

[edit] Meetings

One-day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition. Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group or business which serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or institution. In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation-only basis.

The most basic type of meetings are all-comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete. As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport.

At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the «Golden Four» competition, comprising meetings in Zürich, Brussels, Berlin and Oslo. This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998, which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour. In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one-day track and field meetings.

[edit] Records

Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). A large variety of record types exist and men’s and women’s performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records are those which organise athlete’s performances by the region which they are representing: beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global or world record level. National governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective continental lists, and the IAAF is the body which ratifies world records.

The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914, initially for men’s events only. There were 53 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 12 field records. World records in women’s events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 1970s. First, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976, with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand-timing stopwatch method). In 1981, electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field, with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second. Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old.

The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition – for example the Olympic records which are the best performances by athletes during events at the Summer Olympics. All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records. Other record types include: stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by institution or organisation. Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions.

athletics

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

Read a brief summary of this topic

athletics, also called track-and-field sports or track and field, a variety of competitions in running, walking, jumping, and throwing events. Although these contests are called track and field (or simply track) in the United States, they are generally designated as athletics elsewhere. This article covers the history, the organization, and the administration of the sports, the conduct of competitions, the rules and techniques of the individual events, and some of the sports’ most prominent athletes.

Track-and-field athletics are the oldest forms of organized sport, having developed out of the most basic human activities—running, walking, jumping, and throwing. Athletics have become the most truly international of sports, with nearly every country in the world engaging in some form of competition. Most nations send teams of men and women to the quadrennial Olympic Games and to the official World Championships of track and field. There also are several continental and intercontinental championship meets held, including the European, Commonwealth, African, Pan-American, and Asian.

Within the broad title of athletics come as many as two dozen distinct events. These events, generally held outdoors, make up a meet. The outdoor running events are held on a 400-metre or 440-yard oval track, and field events (jumping and throwing) are held either inside the track’s perimeter or in adjacent areas.

In many parts of the world, notably the United States, Canada, and Europe, the sport moves indoors during the winter; because of limited space, some events are modified and several are eliminated altogether.

Also within the general scope of track-and-field athletics come separate but related competitions that are not contested on the track. Cross-country running competition is carried out on various types of countryside and parkland. Marathons and races of other long distances are run on roads, and the long-distance race walks are contested on measured road courses. The rules followed by all organized competitions are established and enforced by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) and its member body from each nation. The IAAF also ratifies all world records.

History

Origin and early development

Athletics as practiced today was born and grew to maturity in England. The first mention of the sport in England was recorded in 1154, when practice fields were first established in London. The sport was banned by King Edward III in the 1300s but revived a century later by Henry VIII, reputed to be an accomplished hammer thrower.

Modern development

The development of the modern sport, however, has come only since the early 19th century. Organized amateur footraces were held in England as early as 1825, but it was from 1860 that athletics enjoyed its biggest surge to that date. In 1861 the West London Rowing Club organized the first meet open to all amateurs, and in 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club (AAC) was founded and conducted the first English championships. The emphasis in all these meets was on competition for “gentlemen amateurs” who received no financial compensation. In 1880 the AAC yielded governing power to the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA).

The first meet in North America was held near Toronto in 1839, but it was the New York Athletic Club, formed in the 1860s, that placed the sport on a solid footing in the United States. The club held the world’s first indoor meet and helped promote the formation in 1879 of the National Association of Amateur Athletes of America (NAAAA) to conduct national championships. Nine years later the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took over as national governing body, amid reports that the NAAAA was lax in enforcing amateurism.

Athletics was well established in many countries by the late 1800s, but not until the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896 did the sport become truly international. Although begun modestly, the Olympics provided the inspiration and standardizing influence that was to spread interest in athletics worldwide. In 1912 the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was founded, and by the time that organization celebrated its 75th anniversary in 1987 it had more than 170 national members. Its rules applied only to men’s competition until 1936, when the IAAF also became the governing body of women’s athletics.

Major international competitions before World War II included the Olympics, the British Empire Games, and the European Championships, but after the war athletics experienced its greatest period of growth, taking root especially in the developing countries. By the 1950s world-class athletes from African, Asian, and Latin American nations were enjoying great success at international meets.

Источники информации:

• http://www.runnersworld.com/races-places/a20812256/how-to-watch-track-field/
• http://www.mathsisfun.com/activity/olympic-athletics-track.html
• http://www.sevenlakesabc.com/page/show/1773264-what-is-track-and-field-
• http://www.britannica.com/sports/athletics