How are language choices influenced by the context in which communication takes place

Cultural Influence on Communication Processes

A country may be classified as either a high-context culture or a low-context Culture. The context of a culture is either high or low in terms of in-depth background information. This classification provides an understanding of various cultural orientations and explains how Process of communication is conveyed and perceived.

North America and northern Europe (e.g. Germany, Switzerland and Scandinavian countries) are examples of low-context cultures. In these types of society, messages are explicit and clear in the sense that actual words are used to convey the main part of information in communication. The words and their meanings, being independent entities, can be separated from the context in which they occur. What are important, then, are what is said, not how it is said and not the environment within which it is said. Japan, France, Spain, Italy, Asia, Africa and the Middle Eastern Arab nations in contrast, are high-context culture. In such cultures, the communication may be indirect, and expressive manner in which the message is delivered becomes critical. Because the verbal part (i.e. words) does not carry most of the information, much of the information is contained in the non-verbal part of the message to be communicated. The context of communication is high because it includes a great deal of additional information, such as the message sender’s values, position, background, and associations in the society. As such, the message cannot be understood without its context. One’s individual environment (i.e. physical setting and social circumstances) determines what one says and how others interpret one. This type of communication emphasizes one’s character and words as determinants of one’s integrity, making it possible for businesspersons to come to terms without detailed legal paperwork.

Cultures also vary in the manner by which information processing occurs. Some cultures handle information in a direct, linear fashion and are thus monochromic in nature. Schedules, punctuality, and a sense that time forms a purposeful straight line are indicators of such cultures. Being monochromic, however, is a matter of degree. Although the Germans, Swiss and Americans are all monochromic cultures, the Americans are generally more monochromic than most other societies, and their fast tempo and demand for instant responses are often viewed as pushy and impatient. Other cultures are relatively polychronic in the sense that people work on several fronts simultaneously instead of pursuing a single task. Both Japanese and Hispanic cultures are good examples of a polychronic culture. The Japanese are often misunderstood and accused by Westerners of not volunteering detailed information. The truth of the matter is that the Japanese do not want to be too direct because by saying things directly they may be perceived as being insensitive and offensive. The Japanese are also not comfortable in getting right down to substantive business without first becoming familiar with the other business party. For them it is premature to discuss business matters seriously without first establishing a personal relationship. Furthermore, American businesspersons consider the failure of the Japanese to make eye contact as a sign of rudeness, whereas the Japanese do not want to look each other in the eye because eye contact is an act of confrontation and aggression.

The cultural context and the manner in which the processing of information occurs can be combined to develop a more precise description of how communication takes place in a particular country. Germany, for example, is a monochromic and low context culture. France, in comparison, is a polychronic and high context culture. A low context German may insult a high context French counterpart by giving too much information about what is already known. Or a low context German becomes upset when he feels that he does not get enough details from the high context Frenchman.

Process of Communication Across Cultures

Business customs are as much a cultural element of a society as is the language. Culture not only establishes the criteria for day-to-day business behavior but also forms general patterns of attitude and motivation. Executives are to some extent captives of their cultural heritages and cannot totally escape language, heritage, political and family ties, or religious backgrounds. One report notes that Japanese culture, permeated by Shinto precepts, is not something apart from business but determines its very essence. Although international business managers may take on the trappings and appearances of the business behavior of another country, their basic frame of references is most likely to be that of their own people.

In the United States, for example, the historical perspective of individualism and “winning the West” seems to be manifest in individual wealth or corporate profit being dominant measures of success. Japan’s lack of frontiers and natural resources and its dependence on trade have focused individual and corporate success criteria on uniformity, subordination to the group, and society’s ability to maintain high levels of employment. The feudal background of southern Europe tends to emphasize maintenance of both individual and corporate power and authority while blending those feudal traits with paternalistic ‘concern for minimal welfare for workers and other members of society.

Various studies identify North Americans as individualists, Japanese as consensus oriented and committed to the group, and central and southern Europeans as elitists and rank conscious. While these descriptions are stereotypical, they illustrate cultural differences that are often manifested in business behavior and practices. A lack of empathy for and knowledge of foreign business practices can create insurmountable barriers to successful business relations. Some businesses plot their strategies with the idea that counterparts of other business cultures are similar to their own and are moved by similar interests, motivations, and goals-that they are “just like us.” Even though they may be just like us in some respects, enough differences exist to cause frustration, miscommunication, and, ultimately, failed business opportunities if they are not understood and responded to properly.

Knowledge of the business culture, management attitudes, and business methods existing in a country and a willingness to accommodate the differences are important to success in an international market. Unless marketers remain flexible in their own attitudes by accepting differences in basic patterns of thinking, local business tempo, religious practices, political structure, and family loyalty, they are hampered, if not prevented, from reaching satisfactory conclusions to business transactions. In such situations, obstacles take many forms, but it is not unusual to have one negotiator’s business proposition accepted over another’s simply because “that one understands us.”

Language and Communication: They are Two Different Things

Language and communication are different from each other yet one needs the other and at the same time exists separately. The Collins Dictionary defines language as a communication system made up of a group of written and sound symbols that people of a region or country use for writing or talking. On the other hand, sending as well as receiving messages, either by verbal or non-verbal methods, equates to communication.

In communication, people exchange information or messages through various means. It could be verbally, non-verbal actions, graphical and written representations like maps, charts, drawings or infographics, or through signals and signs.

Language, on the other hand, plays an essential role in the communication process. People around the world use a specific language to communicate, exhibiting the fact that language and communication are intertwined, which is a reason why some people fail to see the difference between the two.

Creatures living on earth developed their own way of imparting their thoughts and emotions to other creatures. However, only human beings enjoy the ability to utilize language and words to provide particular meanings. This is what separates humans from animals.

Elements of communication

For communication to happen there should be someone to send and another person to receive a particular message. The sender, as well as the receiver, has to interpret the message to extract its meaning. Messages are conveyed back and forth through feedback. Feedback can be through words or through non-verbal actions like various gestures, sighing, looking away or nodding.

Other factors are considered when communicating. The sender or the receiver of the message has to consider the message’s context, where the message is given and the possible intervention when the message is sent or received.

Situations are different if a person can see or hear the sender of the message because the receiver can immediately hear the response or see the reactions to the message through emotions, emphasis or tone of voice of the sender.

In written communication, consideration is given on how the specific characteristics of the text interact with the cognitive facility of the reader to receive the information comprehensively and coherently. Likewise, the interaction of the language with a person’s motivation and emotional makeup to persuade or move the reader should be looked into.

Communication is a complex process and involves several variables like situations, different genre, medium and method of delivery. Language, on the other hand, is affected by personal, cultural, institution and organizational aims.

For linguists, it is essential to know how the use of language is affected by social context and how culturally diverse people communicate.

Differences in language and communication

There is a fine line that differentiates language and communication and some people fail to recognize this. When you refer to language, it means the communication system that depends on verbal and non-verbal methods so information can be transferred. Communication is the way two people or a group exchange information or messages. You can say that language is a tool while communication is the process of using that tool. Language focuses on words, symbols or signs while communication is centered on the message.

What is language?

In the process of showing the differences between language and communication, it is essential to have a more comprehensive definition of language and communication.

Essentially, language is a tool that aids in the expression and conveyance of thought and feelings of two individuals. The expression of feelings and thoughts can be sent through sounds, symbols, such as written or spoken words, posture, gesture or signs, wherein the receiver interprets a specific meaning.

For humans, the prime communication medium to convey or exchange emotions, opinion, views or ideas, is language. It gives order, meaning and coherence to abstract and complicated thoughts. Different people living in different communities or localities use distinctly separate languages for communication.

What is communication?

Communication involves action. It’s a process of exchanging ideas, message or information from one individual (the speaker) to another (the receiver) through signs or words (language) that are comprehensible between the two parties. Communication is essential for a community or organization so that their members will be able to work in concert. Communication can flow horizontally, diagonally, downward or upward.

In every type and level of a community or organization, communication is needed. It involves a two-way process that has different elements, namely:

In today’s scenario, several communication channels are accessible to people. They can have conversations face-to-face, exchange phone calls, send and receive text messages, send emails or use social media platforms. Reports, signs, fliers and leaflets, brochures, advertisements, letters, television and radio are also communication channels.

Feedback is vital to the communication process and is as important as the delivery of the message. Without the feedback, the act of communication is not complete. Communication can either be formal or informal and may be verbal, oral, non-verbal or written. In a formal setting, such as within an organization, giving positive feedback is an incredibly powerful and effective tool that should be a part of every manager’s toolkit.

Before written words were invented, language was mainly using the auditory means of transmission, through grunts, whistles or drumbeats. In some cases, it was tactile or visual, such as drawings, hand signals, fire or smoke signals. Communication only has one channel – sensory. Language is dynamic because there could be daily changes as its dictionary can add new words daily. The basic steps in communication remain unchanged, therefore, communication is considered static.

In the study of language in the field of communication, several factors are explored. One is the language’s origin. Also studied are phonology, phonetics, syntax, pragmatics, semantics, along with language acquisition, and the connections of language with relationships, diversity and culture.

Language and its connections

The origin of language is something that will perhaps remain obscure forever. It has been the subject of many debates but no one has come up with a specific answer of where language came from. This is vastly different from the study of the origin of the different languages, so you must not confuse the former with the latter. Language forms different connections that determine its use.

1. Culture and language

It is often said the language and culture are closely related. But linguists are still debating whether culture is responsible for shaping language or if it is the other way around. What remains a fact is that the use of a language is definitely culture-related. Some linguists believe that an individual’s way of thinking is formed by language. The effect the language exerts on an individual can even put a limit on the ideas and thoughts of people and even their conduct.

2. Diversity and language

Linguistic markers can have an effect on the perception of people, according to communication scholars. Linguistic markets are speech features that may be used to indicate the social identity of a person. As an example, there are studies regarding the how women speak. Some markers may be for uncertainty, saying that most women end their speech with tag questions.

Women, they say are fond of using qualifiers such as perhaps and maybe, and often include disclaimers when they speak. They are also fond of using a variety of colors while speaking such as lilac or aqua or baby pink, instead of using standard color works like blue or yellow or orange.

Linguistics professor Robin Lakoff of the University of California, Berkeley says that such characteristics of women’s speech lead people to think that women are powerless compared to men when speaking. Her study is not conclusive and there are other studies and research done to find out whether women and men speak differently, but the results vary. Most people say that it is due to stereotyping and prejudice. What is definite is that today, many people consciously use gender-neutral language to veer away from the bias towards a person’s gender or profession.

Although there are subtle differences between language and communication, it cannot be denied that they are enlaced. Specifically, communication is the means of exchanging messages and information through writing, speaking and other means, whereas language is a tool to facilitate communication.

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How Language Influences Our Thinking and Encourages Change

“Our language is the reflection of ourselves. A language is an exact reflection of the character and growth of its speakers.” — Cesar Chavez

The Linguistic Relativity hypothesis proposes the structure of our individual languages impacts our worldview. This hypothesis is known as the “Sapir–Whorf hypothesis”. Also known as Whorfianism, the principle includes two versions.

The strong version suggests that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories.

The weak version says that linguistic categories and usage only influence thought and decisions.

Whichever the case, it is clear that the words we employ greatly influence how we think about innovation, change and transformation.

This week’s Thursday Thought is inspired by the guests from the innovation show. Many of our guests have suggested that language greatly influence the success of our ideas. Employing the right language can breathe life into a new idea; while employing the wrong language can kill an idea before it even takes flight.

Tabula Rasa — Blank Slate

Within every newborn child is the ability to pronounce every sound in every language.

Later in life English speakers struggle to pronounce the Spanish rolling “r” or beautiful French words such as l’amour (love).

When we are born with the potential to speak perfectly in any language. People who raise children abroad witness how easily their children pick up the local language and can pronounce language as a native speaker would. It is as if children seize the opportunity to absorb a language before it becomes too late.

Myelination

At birth, our neurons are like exposed live wires. Initially, there is no insulation on these neurons, which aids electrical transmission.

As we age, a fatty white substance called m yelin coats the neurons forming an insulating layer.

The production of a myelin sheath (like the white insulation on a copper live wire) is called myelination.

During infancy, myelination occurs quickly, leading to a child’s fast development, including crawling and walking in the first year. As our previous guest on the innovation show, Dr Larry Rosen tells us myelination is why we cannot potty train children until they are two years old because the neural pathway to their bowels and bladder is not yet myelinated and the signal from their brain does not travel there fast enough.

While myelination continues through adolescence, the last area of the brain to be myelinated is the pre-frontal cortex. The myelination process is not completed until our mid to late 20’s.

Myelination is like a seal of approval of a certain neural pathway and the way things are “done” in that neural pathway. If we think of the neural pathway as the facilitator of a learned habit, then perhaps myelin seals that habit, akin to firm cement in a foundation.

Dr Srini Pillay told us on the innovation show, our brains lay down neural pathways that mesh with the sounds we hear every day, eliminating other sounds from other languages. When people from China try to learn English, they no longer have the neural pathways to properly say their r’s. Perhaps Myelination is a contributing factor as to why it is easier to learn a language when we are younger before the wires are “sealed” with myelin.

I share these examples to illustrate how our thinking can become “fixed”. To change our thinking, we need to change elements that influence our thinking.

There are countless ways that we subtly, unconsciously carry our belief systems with us, language is one such way.

How Language Influences Thinking

Language is so much more than a series of labels for things. Words have the power to trigger emotions, imagination and action.

Think about a random word, apple, for example. Do you see theword “APPLE” in your mind or do you see the fruit or do you see a picture of the fruit with “A is for Apple” written below it?

The French word for chair is “la chaise”. Rather than reading this from a book, it is so much easier to memorise and internalise the word if someone gestures to a physical chair and says “voilá, la chaise” or someone pulls out a chaise and invites you to “ asseyez vous” (sit down). When words become meshed with something tangible, if even just a mental picture or an experience, we not only remember that word, but we associate the ecosystem of other words with that tangible experience. For example, the cushion on the chair, the dining experience and he verbs used around the chair. The word itself becomes a symbol that triggers the memory of the experience. This is why a lot of us are visual learners, we associate images with ideas.

As Srini Pillay says in his excellent book, pictures and symbols convert concrete problems into “forms of themselves” that are easier to work with. They are representations of “things” (like chairs).

Every word itself is a symbol, a shorthand way of describing some “thing”.

Choosing Your Words Carefully

“Whatever words we utter should be chosen with care for people will hear them and be influenced by them for good or ill.” — Buddha

The words we choose are so important when it comes to effecting change and inspiring evolution. We need to change our language to change our thinking.

We can only ever see a vision when we have the correct words for it, words we can relate to. This is similar to learning a new language.

When new business models and new ways of doing things arise we cannot simply square peg the new ways of doing thing into the round hole of the way things used to be done.

Instead, we need new terms or new symbols to represent new business models and new ways of doing things. Renaming things can also help to reframe our emotions.

One of my bugbears is when digital workers use catch-all phrases like “Digital” or “Innovation”. When these words are thrown around they become nothing words, they become meaningless jargon, they become symbols of esoteric behaviour, alienation and even fear.

(Un)Stuck for Words

Many innovation workers, change agents and gainsayers get “stuck for words”. They often see a future that others cannot see, but it can be difficult to articulate that future. This is exponentially more difficult in older organisations where both language and thinking are even more rigid and crystallised.

We discussed how language can become fixed, “myelinated” so to speak. Fortunately, the brain is plastic, it can be reshaped and rewired (neuroplasticity).

This is great news for the change maker. To change people, you cannot simply change business models, you have to fundamentally change mental models. While change is effected through a plethora of means, one such medium is language. This is where many innovation workers fail. I have been guilty of this and also failed. This is why I share this Thursday Thought.

As innovators, we are trained how to brainstorm, think differently and designthink, but we are not trained in how to sell an idea. None of us wants that, we are in this to make an impact, to leave a legacy.

“Just having ideas doesn’t change anything in the world. It’s having ideas that are actionable and acted upon. That’s how you change the world.” — David Owens (EP 100)

To finish this Thursday Thought, I gathered some thoughts on language from various experts on various episodes.

Joe Pine is the father of the Experience Economy. As far back as 1998, Joe introduced a new language to encapsulate new business models and experiences. The world is witnessing a shift from commodities, products and services towards both experiences and transformational experiences. In this world, the language must change. In one of many examples in episode 82, Joe suggests marketing be relabelled as “customering” because this puts the customer first.

Inspired by Joe’s work, Andre Wiringa on episode 96 suggests we relabel customers as guests. Andre tells us this changes how we think of customers, it changes how we think.

On episode 94, Larry Osborne emphasises how we need to employ a language of experimentation and flexibility, not a language of certainty. Why? The status quo will tolerate an experiment, especially because they expect it to fail. Experimentation language gives you runway to get a lot done, all in the name of said experimentation. An added benefit is experimentation language permits us a license for mid-course corrections, in fact, these will be encouraged not just allowed and mid-course corrections will be vital.

On EP 65: “Selling Ideas to Your Boss and Getting Buy-In” Jim Detert explores a framework for the idea or issue selling. He talks of framing the issue as a loss or gain as humans tend to value loss avoidance more than gain of a new thing.

Jim also talks about timing, creating a burning platform if possible. Jim says we can also connect our idea with a hot current project and get it implemented under that project. The timing and context in which you present the idea are paramount.

This point of this post is to bring our attention to the importance of our language choices. P.B. Medawar said the human mind treats new ideas like strange proteins, it rejects them, so we must find a way to introduce new ideas so they are accepted.

This is why this week’s guest is so important in the suite of changemaker armoury. Joel Schwartzberg trains people how to make a point. Joel upskills people in how to identify, sharpen, and champion their most important ideas. An important observation Joel makes is that the burden of clarity is on the idea seller, not the idea buyer.

Identifying, making and selling good points is vital for change as is the language we employ.

THANK YOU FOR READING, IF YOU LIKE THIS PLEASE HIT A THUMB SO OTHERS WILL SEE IT

This week’s innovation show is EP 101: “Get to The Point with author and strategic communications trainer Joel Schwartzberg”

Joel Schwartzberg is a strategic communications trainer. The biggest obstacle he’s come across — one that connects directly to nervousness, stammering, rambling, an epic fail is that most speakers and writers don’t have a point.

They typically have just a title, a theme, a topic, an idea, an assertion, a catchphrase, or even something much less.

This show is about how to identify your point, leverage it, stick to it, and sell it, and train others to turn their biggest fear into their greatest strength, and be the best champions of their greatest ideas.

1.3 Communication in Context

Learning Objective

Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine this in context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same experience as a discussion in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a friend the same experience as writing a professional project proposal or a purchase order? Each context has an influence on the communication process. Contexts can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been communicating in many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what you’ve learned through experience in each context to business communication.

Intrapersonal Communication

Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so that, while the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone conversation, have you ever been thinking about what you are going to say, or what question you might ask, instead of listening to the other person? Finally, have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.

Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.” (Wood, 1997) Donna Vocate’s book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your all into completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.

What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally ingrained preunderstanding.” (Habermas, 1984)

For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is the same.

When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean 7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive ten to fifteen minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at 9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your internal assumptions about time and punctuality may be.

Interpersonal Communication

The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interpersonal communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting relationship established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level implies some previous familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or goodbye.

Group Communication

Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps they are members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often engage in group communication.

“ Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in a conversation.” (McLean, 2005) Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.

Public Communication

This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures have a tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as interruptions or competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-up motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between team members) may interfere with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all its attention to the speaker, and incorporate attention getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales team focused on the message.

Mass Communication

How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative. How do you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product will meet their needs, or that your position on a political issue is the same as your constituents? You send a message to as many people as you can through mass communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the same way the might receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive mass mailings assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and throw them away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all unsolicited e-mail straight to the spam folder unread.

Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting rapidly to new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to a group. It allows us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limited in our ability to tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films, or other images that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more than 140 characters, and you are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing messages or references that many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can develop common ground and increase the appeal of your message.

Key Takeaway

Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. Each context has its advantages and disadvantages, and its appropriate and inappropriate uses.

Exercises

References

Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action (Vol. 1, p. 100). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 14). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Vocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal communication: Different voices, different minds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Wood, J. (1997). Communication in our lives (p. 22). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

INTER-CULTUR@L-NET

Language influences thought, and thus influences the meanings that are conveyed by words. Becoming fluent in a foreign language is a difficult and time-consuming task, but it is essential to gaining intercultural understanding of the society in which that language is spoken. An individual’s perceptions are more important than objective reality in determining the individual’s behavior. These perceptions differ from one culture to another. One of the main propositions of intercultural communication is that culture shapes an individual’s perceptions, and thus behavior.

The process by which individuals change from speaking one language to another during a conversation is considered to be code-switching. Participants must be equally fluent in at least two languages. Intercultural communication scholars have investigated under what conditions code-switching takes place and its consequences. They have learned that code-switching has complex rules, although it usually happens naturally without the code-switchers being fully aware of why they switch when they do. The language spoken may affect the meanings derived by the conversation partners. For example, two people fluent in both English and Spanish are having a conversation in Spanish. A third person joins them who can only speak English. The conversation rather naturally switches to English. No one states: “Okay, now let’s talk in English”. The change happens naturally. Now let’s assume the speakers do not know the third person who joins them, but they know his name is Jesus Martinez. They could continue speaking Spanish, assuming that Jesus knows the language, until they perceive that he does not comprehend what they are saying. This example illustrates code-switching as a desire to accommodate another participant. Code-switching occurs more frequently in countries where many people are bilingual. Code-switching can be used in the opposite direction of the examples above. If the goal was to send a very different message, code-switching could be used to distance oneself from others. Refusing to communicate in a shared code sends a clear message that the conversation is closed to “strangers”.

One important and necessary behavior in every face-to-face interpersonal exchange is turn-taking, defined as the process through which the participants in a conversation decide who will talk first, next, and so forth. Have you noticed how individuals in a conversation decide who will talk next? Nonverbal clues may be important, such as when an individual looks at the person who is expected to talk next in a conversation. When two people who are talking do not share a common culture, they may misunderstand each other’s subtle clues as to when each should speak. As a result, both individuals may try to talk at the same time, or their discourse may be interrupted by awkward silences. As a consequence of these difficulties with turn-taking, both conversation partners may feel uncomfortable. For instance, when a Japanese and a North American talk in English, a pause of a few seconds’ duration may frequently occur before the Japanese speaker responds.

Communication scholars distinguish between two dimensions of a message:

– the message content, or what is said;

– the relationship, or how it is said.

This distinction was originally formulated by Gregory Bateson while observing monkeys playing in the San Francisco zoo. He noticed that one monkey would nip another in a way that looked like real combat, but both monkeys understood that the nip was just in play. Bateson concluded that the bite message must have been preceded by another signal that established a playful relationship between the two monkeys. He called the relationship message metacommunication, that is communication about communication. Humans as well as monkeys, frequently engage in metacommunication. For example, one person is laughing while he makes a very offensive statement to a close friend, who thus understands from the smile that the remark is in jest.

The content versus relationship dimensions of communication are different in different cultures. Collectivistic cultures put greater emphasis upon the relationship aspect of a message. For example, individuals in a collectivistic culture form messages in a way so as not to offend or make another person lose face. Less important is the clarity of the message content because relationships are considered more important. In comparison, individualistic cultures stress message content over the relationship dimension of a message. If someone’s feelings get hurt by a communication message, too bad. Individuals generally feel that effective communication depends on being clear and avoiding ambiguity, although in an individualistic culture there are situations when ambiguous messages are appropriate. For example, a certain degree of ambiguity would be appropriate when an individual refuses an invitation for a date. Explanations such as “I’m too busy” or “I have to study for an exam” are more acceptable than “No, I don’t like you”.

One of the important functions of interpersonal communication is to form and maintain interpersonal relationships (intimate or distant, etc). culture defines the nature of these relationships between people and their intercultural interpersonal communication. Thus one of the most important dimension of interpersonal relationships, especially in most Asian cultures, is face, defined as the public self-image that an individual wants to present in a particular social context. Face is particularly important for the Japanese, Chinese, and other Asians and Asian Americans who share a collectivistic culture. These individuals are extremely concerned with how they will appear to others around them. They wish to avoid looking foolish or making a social error that could lead to guilt or shame. Much attention is given to maintaining positive interpersonal relationships with peers. In order to help another person maintain face, one should pay compliments, and offer frequent apologies for oneself. One should not criticize Asian persons in public situations, as this act might harm the individual’s face. For example, a North American teaching English as a foreign language in Japan playfully said in class to a favorite student: “You are a lazy student”. The student did not talk to the teacher for the next several weeks and was very hurt by the teacher’s joking comment. The student had lost face.

A distinction can be made between maintaining someone else’s face versus your own. In collectivistic cultures like Asia, the maintenance of other-face predominates. In individualistic cultures, attention to self-face is more important. Yet, face is not unimportant in an individualistic culture like the United States. Bosses are advised to praise their employees publicly but to offer criticism in private.

As we have already considered, communication is a two-way process, for every person speaking there is usually someone who is listening. The receiving role in the communication process is just as important as the sending role, although it has received much less attention from communication scholars.

Most of us are not very effective listeners, because we are passive instead of active listeners. One reason for our inattentiveness while listening is because humans typically speak at about 125 to 150 words per minute, while individuals can listen at a rate of 400 words per minute. During our spare time as a listener, we often let our mind wander to other topics. Such inattentive listening often occurs during lecture classes. Twenty minutes after a lecture, listeners can remember only about half of the message content. One hour after the lecture, remembering drops to 40 percent; one day later this figure is 35 percent, and after two days it is 30 percent. One week after the lecture, listeners can remember 27 percent, and after two weeks, 25 percent. These data reflect the abilities of average individuals.

One principle of listening is to listen through the words in order to detect central themes. A good listener demonstrates attentiveness, does not interrupt, and is cautious in asking questions of the speaker. A listener should control his/her emotions and avoid being distracted. Listening demonstrates caring for the speaker and the topic.

Active listening consists of two steps:

– hearing, or exposure to the message;

– understanding, when we connect the message to what we already know;

– remembering, so that we do not lose the message content;

– evaluating, thinking about the message and deciding whether or not it is valid;

– responding, when we encode a return message based on what we have heard and what we think of it.

Cultural factors affect each of these five components of active listening. In many cultures that consider it impolite to ask a speaker a question responding may not be valued, and to disagree would be unthinkable. Many of the difficulties in communication between culturally unalike individuals may be due to cultural factors in listening behavior. It is often problematic as to whether one’s conversation partner is tuned in or not.

All languages are social and powerful. The language that is used, the words and the meanings that are communicated, depends not only on the context but also on the social relations that are part of that interaction. For example, bosses and workers may use the same words, but the meanings that are communicated may differ. A boss and a worker may both refer to the company personnel as a “family”. To the boss, this may mean “one big happy family”, while to an employee, it may mean a “dysfunctional family”. To some extent, the difference is due to the power differential between the boss and the worker.

Language is powerful and can have tremendous implications for people’s lives. For example, saying the words “I do” can influence lives dramatically; being called names can be hurtful, etc.

Just as organizations have particular structures and specific job positions within them, societies are structured so that individuals occupy social positions. Differences in social positions are central to understanding communication. Not all the positions within society are equivalent; everyone is not the same. Thus, for example, when men whistle at a women walking by, it has a different force and meaning than if women were to whistle at a man walking by.

Power is a central element, by extension, of this focus on differences in social position. When a judge in court says what he or she thinks freedom of speech means, it has much greater force than when your friend who is not a judge gives an opinion about what this phrase means. When we communicate, we tend to note, however unconsciously, the group memberships and positions of others.

Groups also hold different positions of power in society. Groups with the most power (Whites, heterosexuals) – consciously or unconsciously – use a communication system that supports their perception of the world. This means that cocultural groups (ethnic minorities, gays) have to function within communication systems that may not represent their lived experience.

Cocultural groups can communicate nonassertively, assertively, or aggressively. Within each of these communication postures, cocultural individuals may focus on assimilation, trying to become like members of the dominant group. Or they can try to accommodate or adapt to the dominant group. Or they can remain separate from the dominant group as much as possible.

Sometimes it seems difficult to answer the following questions: “Which is more important, being a good speaker or a good listener?” “Is it preferable to be effective at communicating verbally or nonverbally?” “Is it better to be direct and to the point in communicating?”. There are cultural variations in how language is used: differences in attitudes toward speech and silence, differences in whether meaning is more in the verbal or nonverbal communication, and differences in communication style.

In some cultural groups speaking is highly-valued. For example, being a good political, business, or religious leader often depends on the ability to express oneself well, to be “quick on one’s feet”. In these cultural groups, a secondary, or less important, mode of communication is listening. And silence is sometimes viewed negatively. For example, people may be embarrassed if there are too many pauses in conversations, or they may feel that they aren’t really connecting with people. Silence also may be associated with being isolated. By contrast, many cultural groups place a primary emphasis on silence and harmony, and a secondary emphasis on speech. Many Japanese have a distrust of verbal skills; the Japanese proverb “You have two ears and one mouth” implies that one should listen twice as much as one speaks. And other Asian cultures share this distrust.

Another way of looking at power and language is to think about the labels we use to refer to other people and ourselves. For example, we might label ourselves or others as “male” or “female” to indicate gender identity. The context in which a label is used may determine how strongly we feel about the label.

Sometimes, people might complain: “Why do we have labels? Why can’t I just be me?” But the reality is, it would be nearly impossible to communicate without labels. Trouble arises, however, from the use of labels that we don’t like or that we feel inaccurately describe us. Think about how you feel when someone describes you by the terms you do not like. Labels communicate many levels of meaning and establish specific relationship between speaker and listener. Sometimes, people use labels to communicate a sense of equality with and affection for another – for example, “friend”, “lover”, or “partner”. Sometimes people use labels that are offensive to others, which reflect the speaker’s ignorance and lack of cultural sensitivity and connection to the other group. For instance, the use of terms such as “Oriental” and “homosexual” communicates negative characteristics about the speaker and establishes distance between speaker and listener. “Oriental” is viewed as negative because it does not refer to any real place and has negative connotations of things exotic and strange; it is better to use “Asian”.

People who speak two languages are considered bilingual; people who speak more than two languages are considered multilingual. Rarely, however, do bilinguals speak both languages with the same level of fluency. More commonly, they prefer to use one language over another, depending on the context and the topic. Sometimes, entire nations are bilingual or multilingual.

1 Suarez-Orosco M. M. The Educational Success of Latino Students – Harvard University – volume 71, №71

2 Martin J.N., Nakayama Th.K. Experiencing Intercultural Communication – Arizona State University.

3 Papademetriou D. Ethnopolitical Background of the Multicultural Education, ERIC Digest NO.EDO-RC-2003-2, February, 2003, pp. 17-19.

4 Park R.E. Race and Culture – N.Y.

5 Steinfatt Th.M., Rogers E.M. Intercultural Communication. – Waveland Press Inc., Illinois.

6 Suarez – Orozco C. Globalization, Immigration and Education//Harvard Education Review