People who made the break in the third of our series
People who made the break in the third of our series
Why do Russians call Moscow the Third Rome?
Why is Moscow compared to Ancient Rome?
For Russian speakers, Moscow has many nicknames. The city is sometimes referred to as the «first throned» indicating it became the first capital of the young Russian state, or «golden-domed» in light of the gilded cupolas of Moscow’s churches. But one of the most familiar names, dating back to the Middle Ages, is the “Third Rome.” But where did it come from?
Successor to Rome and Constantinople
It was the Orthodox monk Philotheus (Filofei) who called Moscow the Third Rome for the first time. In 1523-1524 he wrote letters to the Grand Duke of Moscow urging him to fight against heresies. The Duchy of Moscow, in the monk’s view, remained the last bastion of the true faith.
«All the Christian kingdoms have come to an end and have converged in the single kingdom of our sovereign,» Philotheus wrote in one of the epistles. «Two Romes fell, a third stands, and there will not be a fourth one.»
The First Rome, according to Philotheus, is the real Rome – the capital of the Roman Empire – which brought together dozens of societies under its rule. In the 4 th century AD Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the previously pagan empire and Rome became the Christian capital of the world. It was succeeded by Constantinople, the main city of the Byzantine Empire, where, after the Christian Church split into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox (1054), Orthodox Christianity took root. According to Orthodox Christians, the Catholic Rome fell, descending into heresy, and Constantinople became the Second Rome, the capital of the truly Christian world.
«After the Baptism of Rus in the 10th century, Russians recognized the authority of the Byzantine Emperor as protector of all Christians,» says historian Svetlana Lurye. But several centuries later the Second Rome also fell. In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, weakened by political crises, and renamed it Istanbul. Moscow, which in the 15 th to 16 th centuries gathered around itself the fragmented Russian lands, became the main Orthodox Christian capital.
Forgotten idea
According to American historian Marshall Poe, the author of Moscow, the Third Rome: The Origins and Transformations of a «Pivotal Moment», in the West the idea of a Third Rome is often used to explain Soviet and later Russian foreign policy. Allegedly at its foundation lies the expansionist notions of creating an empire similar to the Roman one. Poe himself believes it is the wrong approach: «It [the idea of a Third Rome] says nothing about long-term trends in Russian foreign policy or Russian national psychology.»
The historian goes on to explain that the meaning of the concept is exaggerated. In fact, after Philotheus the monk expressed the idea of a Third Rome at the end of the 16 th century, it was safely forgotten for the next three centuries. The Russian state expanded but not because of its rulers’ dreams of an Orthodox empire but for more practical reasons, such as the struggle for resources and access to the seas, to name but a few.
Philotheus’s idea was remembered for the first time only in the second half of the 19 th century, under Emperor Alexander II, when Philotheus’s epistles were published in large print runs. The concept of Moscow as the Third Rome was adopted by the Russian movement of Pan-Slavists, who dreamed of uniting the Slavic peoples under the auspices of the Russian Empire. But after the 1917 revolutions and the coming to power of the Communists, the Pan-Slavic ideas died out.
A city of seven hills
Apart from having the status of an imperial capital going back to the Middle Ages, Moscow has little in common with Rome – it has completely different architecture and a much harsher climate. One of the few common features usually mentioned is that Moscow, like Rome, allegedly stands on seven hills.
However, historian and expert on Moscow Alexander Frolov says that the expression «city on seven hills» doesn’t ring true. He explains that, in listing the «hills», chronicles count gentle elevations which are difficult to regard as hills. The only real hill is Borovitsky on which the Moscow Kremlin still stands. Frolov says it simply wishful thinking and a beautiful legend, calling it the “fruit of the imagination of Romantics – they were overcome by their desire to call Moscow the Third Rome.»
This article is part of the «Why Russia…?» series in which RBTH answers popular questions about Russia.
Read more: Why is the Russian language so difficult?
If using any of Russia Beyond’s content, partly or in full, always provide an active hyperlink to the original material.
People who made the break in the third of our series
Кто в английском шарит,спасайте
1)Прочитайте тексты (1—5), установите соответствия между ними и заголовками (а—f), отметьте каждый текст соответствующей буквой. В списке имеется один лишний заголовок.
Tragic Episode in Planet\’s History
Lost in History
History Giving Answers
Curious Episode in History
1. Almost everybody has heard of the ancient Maya, a mysterious people who lived in Central America in 1500 ВС — AD 900 and then suddenly disappeared. But very few of us know that the Maya were not the earliest civilization on the American continent. The first great group of people there were the mysterious Olmecs.
2. During the English Civil War, King Charles II fought against Oliver Cromwell. One battle took place at Worcester in 1651. Charles and his men were defeated and had to escape. As night fell they lost their way and stayed for the night at Boscombel House. There Charles put on a common man\’s clothes, cut his hair short and blackened his face with soot. Then Charles set off north.
3. Hadrian\’s Wall is an ancient wall across England from Carlisle in the west to Newcastle in the east. The Roman Emperor Hadrian wanted to protect Roman Britain from attacks by Scottish tribes. So he told his soldiers to build a wall. It took them nearly six years to complete it. The Roman soldiers guarded the wall, which was 117 kilometres long and 4 metres high. Now there are only ruins left of Hadrian\’s Wall.
4. The largest development in the debate among scientists about what killed the prehistoric dinosaurs is the idea that acid rain was the cause. Some geologists suggest that a large meteor hitting the earth at the speed of 65 kilometres per second was able to lead to strongly acidic rain falling all over the world.
5. In 1871, the newly formed Rugby Football Union selected an English team to play the first ever international match against Scotland. The committee chose a red rose as the team\’s badge. Though England lost the match, which took place in Edinburgh, the country\’s rugby teams have worn red roses ever since.
1___ 2____ 3____ 4____ 5____ 6____
2)Выберите и подчеркните лексически правильные варианты из данных в скобках.
What you\’ve just said isn\’t quite clear. Will you (explain/scream) it again?
Mike is planning a (terrible/terrific) performance at Christmas. He says it\’ll be his best.
This railway engine can (pull/push) twelve carriages.
The invitation cards will be (printed/published) on pink paper.
The police are (inventing/investigating) a new mystery.
He (lay/lied) about his age and we all thought he was older.
What kind of sugar do you buy? — Brown (one/sugar); I drink coffee with it.
Christine wanted to spend all her (earning/earned) money on presents for the family.
What\’s the text (printing/printed) on the front page?
The two languages (speaking/spoken) in the country are English and French.
The club (opening/opened) in our school at the moment is likely to be popular.
5. The sounds (coming/come) from the classroom next door were not easy to identify.
Тест по теме Имя Числительное с ответами (подготовка к ЕГЭ)
Тест по теме Имя Числительное с ответами (подготовка к ЕГЭ)
Choose the correct variant
1. 145 _____ live in the Russian Federation.
a) millions people
b) millions of people
c) million of people
d) million people
2. _____ are starving in the world today.
a) Thousands people
b) Thousands of people
3. You are _____ who asks me this stupid question.
4. Two _____ of my income I spend on my pet’s food.
5. Every _____ person in our company is not satisfied with his salary.
6. Ok! See you on _____ of April.
a) the twentyth-seventh
c) the twenty-seventh
7. It is _____ hit. I like such songs.
a) his the third
c) the third his
8. _____ of the territory is covered with ice.
9. This bouquet costs _____ dollars!
c) two hundred of
10. Two thirds of my work _____ dedicated to the theory of the subject.
11. Two _____ two is four.
12. I need _____ of your annual turnover.
13. So, this will be two _____ five.
14. _____ can save the situation.
15. A fortnight means _____ weeks.
16. _____ we need to think this problem over.
a) the first of all
b) at the first sight
c) at first sight
18. The length of this avenue is 5 kilometers _____ four hundred _____ fifty meters.
19. I wonder what the world will be at the end of _____ century?
b) the twentieth-first
c) the twenty-first
a) nineteen seventys
b) the nineteen seventies
c) the nineteen seventeens
Л. П. Хмелевская, МОУ «Санаторная школа-интернат№2 для детей, нуждающихся в длительном лечении», г. Магнитогорск, Челябинская область
Образец вступительного теста в БГУИР (2005)
Задание I . Прочитайте текст. Затем прочтите утверждения после текста и отметьте в талоне ответов:
T (true), если утверждение верное;
F (false), если утверждение неверное.
Пример. White Muscarella is a highly respected physicist.
Ответ: F.
Fakes Found in Major Museums
Oscar White Muscarella, a highly respected archeologist at New York’s Metropolitan Museum, claims that more than 1,250 forgeries are on display in the world’s leading museums and art galleries. In his latest book Muscarella specifically names 37 forgeries in the Louvre, 16 in the British Museum and 45 in his own museum in New York. Muscarella’s claims have been heavily criticized by some museum officials who are bitterly opposed to his arguments. But Muscarella has perfectly good scientific evidence for his claims, showing that over 40 per cent of the objects examined by the Oxford Thermoluminescence laboratory are fakes. The reason for the quantity of forgeries is quite simple. Because many of the objects in our museums were found by amateurs and illegally exported from their countries of origin they have no official provenance or documented history. Museums are aware of this problem and as a result they have been known to overlook the lack of written records before accepting or buying antiquities. This makes it virtually impossible to detect forgeries, especially if they are accurate copies. But in fact many forgeries are entirely obvious as they are often copied from a photograph which only shows the front of an object. When examining the back of the forgery they can look completely different from the original. But museum officials tend to be deeply conservative and hate to question objects which have been sitting in their collections for many years.
Muscarella specializes in the ancient Middle East, and this is the area of archaeology in which he has found so many forgeries. But his research has had the effect of undermining the reputation of some of our most highly regarded institutions, and this should be of concern to anyone who values our cultural heritage.
Notes:
fake – подделка
forgery – подделка, фальшивка
provenance – происхождение, источник
1. Oscar White Muscarella, a highly respected architect, had found a lot of forgeries in the ancient Middle East.
2. In his latest published work Muscarella showed that he had found more forgeries in his own museum than in the French national art museum.
3. Muscarella’s claims haven’t been technically proved.
4. Museum officials are ready to examine objects of their collections to prove they are not fakes.
5. Muscarella’s claims don’t interfere with anybody’s interests.
6. What does Oscar White Muscarella claim?
A. He claims that some art museums have comprehensive collections that embrace many styles and periods.
B. He claims that the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the Louvre in Paris, the State Hermitage in Saint Petersburg, the National Gallery in London have a lot of forgeries in their collections
C. He claims that he has found a lot of forgeries in a collection of European and American painting, sculpture, decorative arts, and graphic arts from the late Middle ages to the present
D. He claims that there are many forgeries in the collections of the ancient Middle East
7. What is the response of museum officials to his claims?
A. They agree that the robbery of valuable artistic works has been a problem since ancient times.
B. They say that today art theft not only involves the loss of art worth billions of dollars but is also an issue of complex cultural debates.
C. They are against the reasons that support his point of view and don’t agree with him.
D. They claim that the damage to our cultural heritage is a tragic circumstance.
8. What evidence for his claims does Muscarella have?
A. He has the results of the analysis made with the use of such technique as thermoluminescence dating, in detecting forgeries.
B. Muscarella produces evidence that over fifty per cent of the objects examined by use of special illumination such as ultraviolet black light, infrared photography, and X-ray radiographs are forgeries.
C. He says that the best detector of a false work of art, however, is the trained human eye.
D. Muscarella has used a binocular microscope to reveal signatures made by a forger.
9. Why are art forgeries so numerous?
A. Art is more valuable than ever before, thus increasing the incentive for theft.
B. With today’s rapid communication and speedy travel, it is easy to transfer the stolen pieces of art and then send them over great distances.
C. Limited finance of governments doesn’t let them provide up-to-date security measures for their museums.
D. Many of the items on display were found by dilettantes and unlawfully taken from their homeland, so their origin was often left unidentified.
10. What makes it sometimes possible to detect forgeries even without any special equipment?
A. Forgeries are usually larger than their originals.
B. Paint extending over an old crackle pattern may be the evidence of repainting.
C. A lot of forgeries were made from picture which didn’t show the back side of the thing, that’s why if you have the original, you can compare its back with the copy and see the difference.
D. Sometimes some different material was used to produce a forgery.
11. But in fact many forgeries are entirely obvious as they are often copied from a photograph which only shows the front of an object.
A. Но фактически многие подлоги вполне явные, ввиду того, что они копировали фотографию, которая показывает только фасад вещи.
B. Но на самом деле многие фальшивки совсем ясные, потому что они часто подражали фотографии, которая показывала только внешний вид объекта.
C. Но в действительности многие подделки совершенно очевидные, так как они часто воспроизводятся с фотографии, которая показывает только переднюю часть предмета.
D. Но в сущности многие выдумки полностью явные, следовательно, они часто копируются с фотографий, которые показывали только фронтальную часть объекта.
12. Museums are aware of this problem and as a result they have been known to overlook the lack of written records before accepting or buying antiquities.
A. Музеи знают об этой проблеме, и в результате они знают, что не замечают недостатка письменных записей до принятия или покупки антикварных предметов.
B. Музеи осознают эту проблему и, как известно, в результате она закрывают глаза на отсутствие письменных документов до принятия или покупки антикварных предметов.
C. Музеи отдавали себе полный отчёт в этом затруднении, и в результате им хорошо известно, что они игнорировали отсутствие письменных регистраций до принятия или покупки антикварных предметов.
D. Музеи понимают этот трудный случай, и в результате им стало известно, что они не придали значения отсутствию письменных свидетельств до принятия или покупки антикварных предметов.
13. But museum officials tend to be deeply conservative and hate to question objects which have been sitting in their collections for many years.
A. Но руководители музеев имели тенденцию к тому, чтобы быть глубоко консервативными, и ненавидят ставить вопросы к предметам, которые находятся в их коллекции многие годы.
B. Но должностные лица музеев склонны быть крайне консервативными и не хотят подвергать сомнению предметы, которые находятся в их коллекциях в течение многих лет.
C. Но служащие музеев имеют тенденцию к тому, чтобы быть очень сдержанными, и испытывали неловкость, рассматривая объекты, которые находятся в их коллекции в течение многих лет.
D. Но чиновники музеев имели склонность к тому, чтобы быть в высшей степени консервативными, и не соглашались исследовать вещи, которые находились в их коллекции много лет.
14. But his research has had the effect of undermining the reputation of some of our most highly regarded institutions, and this should be of concern to anyone who values our cultural heritage.
A. Но его исследование подействовало как подрыв репутации некоторых из наших наиболее высоко уважаемых учреждений, и это должно волновать всякого, кто дорожит нашим культурным наследием.
B. Но его изучение имеет намерение подорвать доброе имя одного из наших наиболее высоко почитаемых заведений, и это должно волновать всякого, кто дорожит нашим культурным наследием.
C. Но его исследовательская работа имела цель подорвать славу наших самых уважаемых институтов, и это должно волновать всякого, кто дорожит нашим культурным наследием.
D. Но его изыскание производит впечатление расшатывания репутации всех наших наиболее ценимых учреждений, и это должно волновать всякого, кто дорожит нашим культурным наследием.
15. Heritage – something passing from generation to generation such as a way of life or traditional culture that passes from one generation to the next in a social group..
16. Evidence – the things you see, experience, or are told which make you believe that something is true.
17. Reason – something that follows as a result, a consequence of a particular action, condition, or event.
18. Concern – caring feelings, emotions such as worry, compassion, sympathy, or regard for somebody or something.
Задание V . Прочитайте следующие четыре текста. Выберите заголовок к каждому из них. Выбранный вариант заголовка отметьте в талоне ответов соответствующей буквой. Два заголовка лишние.
A. This is the Best Chekhov I Have Ever Seen
B. A Cinematic Masterpiece
C. From Science Fiction to Shakespeare
D. Welcome to the Dollhouse
E. What to See This Week
F. Stuck Between Theatre and Cinema
19. Mel Gibson has been a major film star now for more than twenty years. In this time he has become one of the most respected Hollywood actors and he has now started a successful career in film directing, as well.
Gibson was born in the United States in 1956 but his family moved to Australia in 1968. He completed his school education in Sydney and began his acting career there. He appeared in several Australian TV series, but got his big break in 1979, in a film called Mad Max. Gibson has made more than thirty films, many of which have been great commercial successes. He has never been afraid to take on challenging roles, such as Hamlet and The Man without a Face. He has been directing films for the last few years. To date he has directed three successful films.
20. Only a year ago not many people had heard of theatre director Sam Mendes. But since his debut film, American Beauty won five Oscars in March 2000, no self-respecting cinema-goer would admit to not recognizing the name.
Not only is Mendes one of the youngest first-time directors of a successful Hollywood film, he is also one of the youngest directors to run his own theatre, the Donmar Warehouse in London’s Covent Garden.
Initially, Mendes had no intention of going to Hollywood to direct a feature film but when Steven Spielberg sent him the script of American Beauty, he was unwilling to turn it down. After his Oscar success, the young director didn’t express his opinion about his future. While not wishing to desert his spiritual home the Donmar, he may not resist the temptation of another Hollywood film for long.
21. Jack of Hearts is a new six-part drama series that comes to our screen this week The first episode opens to a scene where a young man is being chased. He stops at a phone box and makes a desperate call. This call wakes up a man who most viewers will recognise as Keith Alien — the slightly sleazy unshaven Cockney whose characters are usually less than honest. This time, however, he is on the right side of the law, playing a probation officer with a complicated professional and personal life. At the centre of his problems is his stepdaughter. His relationship with the girl’s mother, who seems to be a bad-tempered woman, is further compromised later in the series when she joins the staff of a college at which she meets a former lover. Thus the ground is prepared in this first episode for a series that may help to lift British summertime TV out of its regular decrease.
22. Dating from 1971 and directed by Francis Ford Coppola, The Godfather won three Oscars. It is the story of a New York mafia family headed by Marion Brando as «the Godfather». Although Brando has the title role it is Al Pacino, playing his troubled son and heir Michael, who steals the show in a masterly performance. Struggling to reconcile his distaste for crime and brutality with his sense of family honour and duty, Pacino’s character embodies the moral dilemma at the heart of the movie. The director mixes together long scenes of family life with shorter sequences of extreme violence. This violence may shock some viewers. But anyone prepared to put up with this will enjoy a unique dramatic experience. In fact, for many people The Godfather is the greatest American film made in the 1970s.
Задание VII . Найдите лишнее слово в каждой тематической группе:
28. Fruits : A. orange; B. mango; C. lemon; D. plum; E. apple; F. peach; G. plumber.
29. Pets : A. canary; B. goldfish; C. hamster; D. tortoise; E. kite; F. puppy; G. kitten.
30. Farm animals : A. donkey; B. ox; C. cow; D. goat; E. duck; F. horse; G. lamb.
Задание VIII . Выберите правильный вариант ответа на следующий вопрос:
31. When was the construction of the Tower of London begun?
A. around AD 50
B. in 1666
C. in the 11 th century
D. in the 13 th century
32. My neighbour is a photographer; let’s ask him for … advice about colour films.
A. a B. an C. – D. the
33. British explorer Robert F. Scott reached … South Pole in January 1912, only to discover that Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen had got there first.
A. a B. an C. – D. the
34. We went by sea but I’d rather … by air.
A. had gone B. went C. have gone D. have been going
35. We’d better wait till 14 December. David … his exam by then, so he’ll be able to enjoy himself.
A. will have B. will be having C. will have had D. will have been having
36. «I wish that he wrote more regularly,» she said.
A. She said she wishes that he wrote more regularly.
B. She said she wished that he wrote more regularly.
C. She said she wished that he had written more regularly.
D. She said she wished that he has written more regularly.
37. There are a number of people … should be asked.
A. whose B. that C. whom D. what
38. I don’t know him very well so I didn’t give him any advice. If I … him well, I would have given him some advice.
A. know B. knew C. has known D. had known
39. It’s … disappointing.
A. very many B. very C. much D. much very
40. I told him that he couldn’t hope to catch a big fish with a small rod like that, but he insisted … trying.
A. with B. by C. about D. on
41. When Stan was in the army he was made … five miles every morning.
A. running B. to run C. have run D. run
Задание Х . Составьте предложения из приведённых ниже слов. Запишите буквы, под которыми значатся слова, в порядке, соответствующем порядку слов в английском предложении. Не забудьте, что в каждом списке есть одно лишнее слово. Вопросительное слово должно стоять в начале предложения.
Пример: A. they; B. English; C. books; D. he; E. reads.
Ответ: D E B C
45. Even under great pressure (1) O’Brien denied (2) to have taken part (3) in the attack (4).
46. What do you think (1) of that plan (2) to rise the “Titanic” (3) from the seabed (4)?
47. There’s a beautiful old house (1) for sale (2) at the local (3) estate’s agent’s (4).
Задание XII . Прочитайте текст и заполните пропуски, выбрав один из четырёх предложенных вариантов ответов (A, B, C или D).
Money Isn’t Everything
Alan is a commercial traveller. He works for a firm 48___ manufactures and sells different kinds of industrial glue. He spends most of his time travelling, visiting customers in 49___ parts of the country.
Alan doesn’t like his job much, and he is unhappy for several reasons. First of all, he hates 50___ out of suitcases. When he was younger he 51___ all the travelling, but now he is tired of moving from one hotel room to another, spending his life visiting factories in small industrial towns. And he doesn’t enjoy speaking to the people he meets. He gets 52___ well enough with them, but he doesn’t feel they have very much in common. Alan’s 53___ in literature and politics. Most of the factory managers he meets just talk about work and golf. Alan doesn’t find glue very interesting – in fact, he would be delighted if he never 54___ a tub of glue in his whole life.
Although his salary and working conditions are very good, Alan would very much like 55___ his job. He would love to stay in one place and see more of his wife and children. Unfortunately he doesn’t have 56___ choice; it isn’t easy to find work these days, and Alan is fortunate to be employed. Still, he can’t wait to retire. He knows he is lucky in many ways but sometimes he feels 57___ unhappy that he wants to scream.
| 48 | A. who | B. whom | C. which | D. whose |
| 49 | A. vary | B. various | C. variety | D. variously |
| 50 | A. to live | B. to be living | C. living | D. to have been living |
| 51 | A. has loved | B. loved | C. had loved | D. loves |
| 52 | A. off | B. out | C. on | D. by |
| 53 | A. being interested | B. having interested | C. interesting | D. interested |
| 54 | A. sees | B. saw | C. has seen | D. had seen |
| 55 | A. to leave | B. leaving | C. to have left | D. having left |
| 56 | A. many | B. much | C. lots | D. a lot |
| 57 | A. such | B. such as | C. so | D. so as |
Задание XIII . На предложенную реплику-стимул выберите правильный вариант ответной реплики:
58. Hey, John. Could you do me a favour?
A. Oh, no. Neither of us do.
B. Sure. What is it?
C. That’s very nice of you.
D. Thanks a lot.
59. Have you got any flashbulbs?
A. Yes, we have. It’s a very good machine.
B. Yes, please, if you don’t mind.
C. I’m afraid not, sir. We’ll have some in next week. Can you look in on Monday?
D. I think so. How much do you need?
60. Excuse me. Can you tell me the way to the station?
A. Sorry, I’m afraid I’m using it.
B. Sorry, I’m a stranger here myself.
C. Of course. It’s over there on the table.
D. OK. Can you put it back on my desk when you’ve finished with it?
Талон ответов
(ответы на образец вступительного теста по английскому языку в БГУИР)
2005 год
People who made the break in the third of our series
Авторизуясь в LiveJournal с помощью стороннего сервиса вы принимаете условия Пользовательского соглашения LiveJournal
